[ix] Production increased so that by 1937, military exports had increased to 82,788,604 Reichsmarks. II and III. Furthermore, it allowed for Germany to establish three training areas for aviation, chemical and tank warfare. In particular, Germans took offense to the provision that blamed their country for starting the war. [4] Two alliances faced off, the Central Powers (led by Germany) and the Triple Entente (led by Britain, France and Russia). The German Board of Public Health in December 1918 stated that 763,000 German civilians had died during the Allied blockade, although an academic study in 1928 put the death toll at 424,000 people. [22] Over the winter of 1919, the situation became desperate and Germany finally agreed to surrender its fleet in March. The War Guilt Clause in Article 231 in Part 8 in the Treaty of Versailles, was by far the most controversial section of the peace agreement. German Chancellor Philipp Scheidemann even resigned rather than sign the Treaty of Versailles. The War Guilt Clause inArticle 231 in Part 8 in the Treaty of Versailles, was byfar the most controversial sectionof the peace agreement. [120], On 13 January 1935, 15 years after the Saar Basin had been placed under the protection of the League of Nations, a plebiscite was held to determine the future of the area. The Treaty of Versailles forced Germany to concede vast European territories and overseas colonies. A portrait of Kaiser Wilhelm II, the Emperor of Germany. "[43], Clemenceau told Wilson: "America is far away, protected by the ocean. [13][14] Hostility against the Treaty of Versailles was almost universal inside Germany. Reaction in the Kingdom of Italy to the treaty was extremely negative. There was immense dissatisfaction with Duan Qirui's government, which had secretly negotiated with the Japanese in order to secure loans to fund their military campaigns against the south. Perhaps, this seems to be one of the humbling slice of the Treaty of Versailles as attested by Evans (48). Author Website by Monkey C Media. "[78] Ren Albrecht-Carri wrote in May 1940, that "article 231 gave rise to an unfortunate controversy, unfortunate because it served to raise a false issue." Hyperleap helps uncover and suggest relationships using custom algorithms. The armistice was agreed on 11 November 1918, but the formal peace treaty was not agreed until the following year. [68] To that end, the German government funded the Centre for the Study of the Causes of the War. [138][139] Central to this was belief in the stab-in-the-back myth, which held that the German army had not lost the war and had been betrayed by the Weimar Republic, who negotiated an unnecessary surrender. After much consideration, German Foreign Minister Hermann Muellerand Colonial Minister Johannes Belltravelled to Versailles to sign the postwar agreement on behalf of Germany. [127][130], The British Second Army, with some 275,000 veteran soldiers, entered Germany in late 1918. 11, no. 1. The problems that arose from the treaty would lead to the Locarno Treaties, which improved relations between Germany and the other European powers, and the re-negotiation of the reparation system resulting in the Dawes Plan, the Young Plan, and the indefinite postponement of reparations at the Lausanne Conference of 1932. Differences in negotiating strategy between Premier Vittorio Orlando and Foreign Minister Sidney Sonnino further undermined Italy's position at the conference. Who was the German Foreign Minister when the Treaty of Versailles was signed? Of the many provisions in the treaty, one of the most important and controversial was: "The Allied and Associated Governments affirm and Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies." Wikisource has original text related to this article. 469505. When the result was announced 4,100 people, including 800 refugees from Germany fled to France.[n. [17] Some saw it as a good solution in a difficult time, others saw it as a disastrous measure that would anger the Germans to seek revenge. The treaty forced Germany to surrender colonies in Africa, Asia and the Pacific; cede territory to other nations like France and Poland; reduce the size of its military; pay war reparations to the Allied countries; and accept guilt for the war. The Assembly did so by a large majority, and Clemenceau was informed nineteen minutes before the deadline expired. Not even Napoleon himself could touch England. Clemenceau intended to ensure the security of France, by weakening Germany economically, militarily, territorially and by supplanting Germany as the leading producer of steel in Europe. [14][15][16], The terms of the armistice called for an immediate evacuation of German troops from occupied Belgium, France, and Luxembourg within fifteen days. [140], The German economy was so weak that only a small percentage of reparations was paid in hard currency. The reparations were intended for reconstruction and as compensation for families who had been bereaved by the war. "Their status defied exact analysis by both international and constitutional lawyers, but it was clear that they were no longer regarded simply as colonies of Britain. "[v], But the Republican Party, led by Henry Cabot Lodge, controlled the United States Senate after the election of 1918, and the senators were divided into multiple positions on the Versailles question. Hint War Guilt Clause Revenge Clause League of Nations Clause Saar Clause 8. Apart from "Article 231", there is no title for this article in the treaty itself. In March 1921, the Inter-Allied Commission held the Upper Silesia plebiscite, which was peaceful despite the previous violence. They were This is still the subject of ongoing debate by historians and economists. This land made up 48% of Germany's iron production and a large proportion of its coal productions limiting its economic power. By 1920, the BAOR consisted of only 40,594 men and the following year had been further reduced to 12,421. Hindenburgafter prodding from his chief of staff, Wilhelm Groenerconcluded the army could not resume the war even on a limited scale. The most significant of the general terms of the Treaty was clause 231, which stated "Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected" (Facing History, 2014). 120, p. 206. As part of the 1929 negotiations that would become the Young Plan, Gustav Stresemann, and Aristide Briand negotiated the early withdrawal of Allied forces from the Rhineland. Asquith campaigned against it while running for another House of Commons seat in the 1920 Paisley by-election. Hitler's victory was not an unavoidable result of Versailles. [99], Many in China felt betrayed as the German territory in China was handed to Japan. "The Allied and Associated Governments recognise that the resources of Germany are not adequate to make complete reparation for all such loss and damage. Gustav Bauer, the head of the new government, sent a telegram stating his intention to sign the treaty if certain articles were withdrawn, including Articles 227, 230 and 231. American diplomat John Foster Dullesone of the two authors of the articlelater regretted the wording used, believing it further aggravated the German people. [125] In March 1919, this force became the British Army of the Rhine (BAOR). [64], Domestic German opposition to Article 231 has been held to have created a psychological and political burden on the post-war Weimar Republic. Tags: Article 231, Detlef Peukert, Hermann Mueller, Johannes Bell, John Maynard Keynes, Philipp Scheidemann, Raymond Cartier, Richard J. Evans, Treaty of Versailles, War Guilt Clause, Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points. [86], While France ratified the treaty and was active in the League, the jubilant mood soon gave way to a political backlash for Clemenceau. Article 198 prohibited Germany from having an air force, including naval air forces, and required Germany to hand over all aerial related materials. [162], Historians are split on the impact of the treaty. [xi] In late 1918, Allied troops entered Germany and began the occupation. [177], French historian Raymond Cartier states that millions of ethnic Germans in the Sudetenland and in Posen-West Prussia were placed under foreign rule in a hostile environment, where harassment and violation of rights by authorities are documented. The German Army was limited to 100,000 soldiers, and the navy was limited to 15,000 sailors. The harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles fostered deep resentment in Germany. Apart from "Article 231", there is no title for this article in the treaty itself. Study Resources. [102], On 29 April, the German delegation under the leadership of the Foreign Minister Ulrich Graf von Brockdorff-Rantzau arrived in Versailles. They considered the latter an insult to their nations honor. The Council of Four paid no attention to these issues, being preoccupied with othersClemenceau to crush the economic life of his enemy, Lloyd George to do a deal and bring home something which would pass muster for a week, the President to do nothing that was not just and right. For example, a 1921 German Government memo detailed 300 acts of violence from colonial troops, which included 65 murders and 170 sexual offenses. Because Germany was not allowed to take part in the negotiations, the German government issued a protest against what it considered to be unfair demands, and a "violation of honour", soon afterwards withdrawing from the proceedings of the peace conference. [91], After the Versailles conference, Democratic President Woodrow Wilson claimed that "at last the world knows America as the savior of the world! [141], In March 1921, French and Belgian troops occupied Duisburg, Dsseldorf, and other areas which formed part of the demilitarized Rhineland, according to the Treaty of Versailles. The French Right saw the treaty as being too lenient and saw it as failing to achieve all of France's demands. The National Assembly voted in favour of signing the treaty by 237 to 138, with five abstentions (there were 421 delegates in total). Non-commissioned officers (NCOs) were not limited by the treaty, thus this loophole was exploited and as such the number of NCOs were vastly in excess to the number needed by the Reichswehr. [104] Germany's first democratically elected head of government, Philipp Scheidemann, resigned rather than sign the treaty. [128] [177] Peukert noted that because of the "millenarian hopes" created in Germany during World War I when for a time it appeared that Germany was on the verge of conquering all of Europe, any peace treaty the Allies of World War I imposed on the defeated German Reich were bound to create a nationalist backlash, and there was nothing the Allies could have done to avoid that backlash. [103], Germans of all political shades denounced the treatyparticularly the War Guilt Clause that blamed Germany for starting the waras an insult to the nation's honour. "[9] Historian Sally Marks comments that neither the Austrian or Hungarian governments viewed the similar clauses, in their respective peace treaties, "as a declaration of war guilt" and rather it was "German politicians and propagandists" who misinterpreted the treaty and convinced "many who had not read the treaties" that the article implied war guilt by "endlessly" protesting it as a way of gaining international sympathy.[10]. As an example of the arguments against the Versaillerdiktat he quotes Elizabeth Wiskemann who heard two officer's widows in Wiesbaden complaining that "with their stocks of linen depleted they had to have their linen washed once a fortnight (every two weeks) instead of once a month! In Paris proper, people rejoiced at the official end of the war,[85] A revived Germany would be a counterweight to France and a deterrent to Bolshevik Russia. This peace treaty became known as The Treaty of Versailles. Wilson firmly opposed harsh treatment on Germany. The Versailles treaty is . [120] Freikorps [56] [150] [16][17], The Americans, British and French all differed on the issue of reparations settlement. [18] Before the treaty, the occupation force stood at roughly 740,000 men. It was signed on 28 June 1919. Memel was to be ceded to the Allied and Associated powers, for disposal according to their wishes.[n. [77] Delegate Harold Nicolson wrote "are we making a good peace? The treaty was one of several that officially ended five years of conflict known as the Great War World War I.The Treaty of Versailles outlined the conditions of peace between Germany and the victorious Allies, led by the United States, France, and the United Kingdom. [119] Gordon Auchincloss, secretary to Edward M. House (one of Wilson's advisers), sent a copy of the clause to the State Department and stated "you will note that the President's principles have been protected in this clause". The British military historian Correlli Barnett claimed that the Treaty of Versailles was "extremely lenient in comparison with the peace terms that Germany herself, when she was expecting to win the war, had had in mind to impose on the Allies". The Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, near Paris, on June 25, 2007. The German Kaiserliche Marine was mainly restricted to the German Bight and used commerce raiders and unrestricted submarine warfare for a counter-blockade. Orlando was ultimately forced to abandon the conference and resign. After being advised by Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg that Germany was in no condition to resume the war, President Friedrich Ebert and the new Chancellor, Gustav Bauer, recommended that the Weimar National Assembly ratify the treaty. Further confounding the Americans, was US internal partisan politics. Within six months of the transfer, Belgium was required to conduct a plebiscite on whether the citizens of the region wanted to remain under Belgian sovereignty or return to German control, communicate the results to the League of Nations and abide by the League's decision.[n. [68] The troop numbers peaked again at 250,000 during the occupation of the Ruhr, before decreasing to 60,000 men by 1926. On 8 January 1918, however, Wilson delivered a speech (known as the Fourteen Points) that declared the American peace objectives: the rebuilding of the European economy, self-determination of European and Middle Eastern ethnic groups, the promotion of free trade, the creation of appropriate mandates for former colonies, and above all, the creation of a powerful League of Nations that would ensure the peace. The transfer of the Hultschin area, of Silesia, to Czechoslovakia was completed on 3 February 1921. The Treaty of Versailles is presented to the German delegation on May 7, 1919. The disenfranchised and often colonized "non-white" world held high expectations that a new order would open up an unheralded opportunity to have a principle of racial equality recognized by the leading global powers. Their intention had . [173] Evans further noted that the parties of the Weimar Coalition, namely the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), the social liberal German Democratic Party (DDP) and the Christian democratic Centre Party, were all equally opposed to Versailles, and it is false to claim as some historians have that opposition to Versailles also equalled opposition to the Weimar Republic. 528,105 votes were cast, with 477,119 votes (90 per cent of the ballot) in favour of union with Germany; 46,613 votes were cast for the status quo, and 2,124 votes for union with France. If Germany had not committed aggression, a staged withdrawal would take place; after five years, the Cologne bridgehead and the territory north of a line along the Ruhr would be evacuated. Article 231, often known as the War Guilt Clause, was the opening article of the reparations section of the Treaty of Versailles, which ended the First World War between the German Empire and the Allied and Associated Powers. [133] [1] The assassination caused a diplomatic crisis, resulting in Austria-Hungary declaring war on Serbia and ultimately leading to the outbreak of the First World War. In part, this speech called for the Central Powers to withdraw from the territories they had occupied, for the creation of a Polish state, the redrawing of Europe's borders along ethnic ("national") lines, and the formation of a League of Nations. [61][62] Ferguson also wrote that this sum was only 2.4 per cent of German national income between 1919 and 1932, while Stephen Schuker places the figure at an average of 2 per cent of national income between 1919 and 1931, in cash and kind, making a total transfer equal to 5.3 per cent of national income for the period. In January 1919, the [122], During the formulation of the treaty, the British wanted Germany to abolish conscription but be allowed to maintain a volunteer Army. Collapse They wanted a treaty with reservations, especially on Article 10, which involved the power of the League of Nations to make war without a vote by the US Congress. "[181] The Allies rejected this proposal, and demanded that Germany accept all terms unconditionally or face returning to war. Apart from "Article 231", there is no title for this article in the treaty itself. "[23] Article 231, in which Germany accepted the responsibility of Germany and its allies for the damages resulting from the First World War, therefore served as a legal basis for the articles following it within the reparations chapter, obliging Germany to pay compensation limited to civilian damages. 13][69] This was Article 231 of the treaty, often known as the 'War Guilt Clause'. What was the war guilt clause quizlet? [73][74] The Marxist historian Fritz Klein wrote that while there was a path from Versailles to Hitler, the former did not make "Hitler's takeover of power inevitable" and that "the Germans had a choice when they decided to take this path. Treaty of Versailles with signatures of Lloyd George, Woodrow Wilson, Andrew Bonar Law and James Balfour. [116][117] Barnett also claims that, in strategic terms, Germany was in fact in a superior position following the Treaty than she had been in 1914. the return of Alsace and Lorraine to France, and that Germany had agreed to pay reparations. [126] Terms of the Treaty. The government headed by Philipp Scheidemann was unable to agree on a common position, and Scheidemann himself resigned rather than agree to sign the treaty. At this meeting Brockdorff-Rantzau stated that "We know the intensity of the hatred which meets us, and we have heard the victors' passionate demand that as the vanquished we shall be made to pay, and as the guilty we shall be punished". Desertion rates within the German army began to increase, and civilian strikes drastically reduced war production. Article 231, often known as the War Guilt Clause, was the opening article of the reparations section of the Treaty of Versailles, which ended the First World War between the German Empire and the Allied and Associated Powers. An estimated twenty million people died. While the term was not used, self-determination was assumed. Germany lost 13% of its land and 12% of its population to the Allies. "[76] Sidney Fay was the "most outspoken and influential critic" of the article. The delegation comprised of Georges Clmenceau for . [155], In October 1933, following the rise of Adolf Hitler and the founding of the Nazi regime, Germany withdrew from the League of Nations and the World Disarmament Conference. Losing the war caused far reaching upheaval in Germany. The article did not use the word "guilt" but it served as a legal basis to compel Germany to pay reparations for the war. By the 1970s, his work "had emerged as the new orthodoxy on the origins of the First World War". [151][152] Production was not the only violation: "Volunteers" were rapidly passed through the army to make a pool of trained reserves, and paramilitary organizations were encouraged with the illegally militarized police. [45][49] Historian Wolfgang Mommsen commented that despite the public outrage, German government officials were aware "that Germany's position on this matter was not nearly so favorable as the imperial government had led the German public to believe during the war. Wilson, a Democrat, refused to include prominent Republicans in the American delegation making his efforts seem partisan, and contributed to a risk of political defeat at home. To create new boundaries is to create new troubles. [63] [132] The British did not adhere to all obligated territorial withdrawals as dictated by Versailles, on account of Germany not meeting her own treaty obligations. "[52] Regardless of the rhetoric, the American position was to create a balanced treaty that would appease everyone. The result of these competing and sometimes conflicting goals among the victors was a compromise that left no one satisfied. Although it is often referred to as the "Versailles Conference", only the actual signing of the treaty took place at the historic palace. )[40] The mandate of Article (s) 231 and 232 , (respectively titled "The War Guilt Clause" and "Reparations") of the Treaty of Versailles on June 28th, 1919 served as unintentional catalysts for the arise of revisionism in post-war Germany, and its fall out of the international order following the Paris Peace Conference. ", The actual wording of the article was chosen by American diplomats Norman Davis and John Foster Dulles. Courtesy of The Wiener Holocaust Library Collections. [76], In February and March 1920, the Schleswig Plebiscites were held. He also argued that Versailles was not the "main cause" of National Socialism and the German economy was "only marginally influenced by the impact of reparations". This Continue Reading More answers below John Kelly [50] Georges Clemenceau rebuffed Brockdorff-Rantzau's allegations, arguing that "the legal interpretation [of the article] was the correct one" and not a matter of political question. On 12 March 1938, following German pressure to the collapse of the Austrian Government, German troops crossed into Austria and the following day Hitler announced the Anschluss: the annexation of Austria by Germany. "[7] When the Germans on first reading it protested vehemently, the Allied position hardened and there was no effort made to revise it to remove the "guilt" theme.[8]. Clause 231 - often known as the War Guilt Clause - was one of the most controversial terms of the Treaty. . [174], Resentment caused by the treaty sowed fertile psychological ground for the eventual rise of the Nazi Party,[175] but the German-born Australian historian Jrgen Tampke argued that it was "a perfidious distortion of history" to argue that the terms prevented the growth of democracy in Germany and aided the growth of the Nazi Party; saying that its terms were not as punitive as often held and that German hyper-inflation in the 1920s was partly a deliberate policy to minimise the cost of reparations. 66th Cong., 1st sess. fed extreme nationalism, antisemitism and anti-communism. [11] "[21] From January 1919 to March 1919, Germany refused to agree to Allied demands that Germany surrender its merchant ships to Allied ports to transport food supplies. [55] This position fluctuated following the US entry into the war. . The border would be fixed with regard to the vote and to the geographical and economic conditions of each locality.[n. The names "Guilt Clause" and "War Guilt Clause" were assigned in later commentaries. Japan was granted all German possessions in the Pacific north of the equator and those south of the equator went to Australia, except for German Samoa, which was taken by New Zealand.[72][n. Hundreds of mines and factories were destroyed along with railroads, bridges and villages. Hint Germany France The Soviet Union America 9. On 8 January 1918, Wilson issued the Fourteen Points. Reorganisation and the Bamberg Conference, The role of economic instability in the Nazi rise to power, The role of political instability in the Nazi rise to power, The role of the conservative elite in the Nazi rise to power. Although the causes of the devastating post-war hyperinflation are complex and disputed, Germans blamed the near-collapse of their economy on the treaty, and some economists estimated that the reparations accounted for as much as one-third of the hyperinflation. Furthermore, he claimed, it was "hardly a slap on the wrist" when contrasted with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that Germany had imposed on a defeated Russian SFSR in March 1918, which had taken away a third of Russia's population (albeit mostly of non-Russian ethnicity), one-half of Russia's industrial undertakings and nine-tenths of Russia's coal mines, coupled with an indemnity of six billion marks. In January 1927, following the withdrawal of the Allied disarmament committee, Krupps ramped up production of armor plate and artillery. [150] Adam Tooze concurred, and wrote "To put this in perspective, annual military spending by the Weimar Republic was counted not in the billions but in the hundreds of millions of Reichsmarks"; for example, the Weimar Republic's 1931 program of 480million Reichsmarks over five years compared to the Nazi Government's 1933 plan to spend 4.4billion Reichsmarks per year. 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