The intense radiation of most observed GRBs is thought to be released during a supernova or superluminous supernova as a high-mass star implodes to form a neutron star or a black hole. [86], On January 5, 2015, NASA reported observing an X-ray flare 400 times brighter than usual, a record-breaker, from Sagittarius A*. Furthermore, galaxies with a redshift, z, higher than 0.5 are unsuitable for life as we know it, because of their higher rate of GRBs and their stellar compactness. Gravitational collapse is the contraction of an astronomical object due to the influence of its own gravity, which tends to draw matter inward toward the center of gravity. Currently, the only known objects that can pack enough matter in such a small space are black holes, or things that will evolve into black holes within astrophysically short timescales. Black holes are a class of astronomical objects that have undergone gravitational collapse, leaving behind spheroidal regions of space from which nothing can escape, not even light. In particular, it rotates about one of its axes of symmetry. [84][85] Observations suggest significant variation in the jet angle from between 2 and 20 degrees. There is strong evidence that some short-duration gamma-ray bursts occur in systems with no star formation and no massive stars, such as elliptical galaxies and galaxy halos. An 8-meter rod of the same strength, with a mass of 8 kg, breaks at a distance 4 times as high. The point at which tidal forces destroy an object or kill a person will depend on the black hole's size. This was a deep advance because it revealed that strings have a classical interpretation in terms of black holes. The closest analogs within the Milky Way galaxy of the stars producing long gamma-ray bursts are likely the WolfRayet stars, extremely hot and massive stars, which have shed most or all of their hydrogen envelope. Troubled by this paradox, Gerard 't Hooft analyzed the emission of Hawking radiation in more detail. This was, therefore, the first indication that a supermassive black hole exists in the center of the Milky Way. In all other galaxies observed to date, the rms velocities are flat, or even falling, toward the center, making it impossible to state with certainty that a supermassive black hole is present. The resulting runaway carbon detonation completely blows the star apart in a type Ia supernova. Such quantum black holes should decay emitting sprays of particles that could be seen by detectors at these facilities. In 1997, Juan Maldacena gave the first holographic descriptions of a higher-dimensional object, the 3+1-dimensional type IIB membrane, which resolved a long-standing problem of finding a string description which describes a gauge theory. For massive bodies with a surface, the tensile force is largest near the surface, and this maximum value is only dependent on the object and the average density of the massive body (as long as the object is small relative to the massive body). Some bursts are preceded by a "precursor" event, a weak burst that is then followed (after seconds to minutes of no emission at all) by the much more intense "true" bursting episode. [24] Hubble's law showed that the object was located several billion light-years away, and thus must be emitting the energy equivalent of hundreds of galaxies. It might be thought that a sufficiently massive neutron star could exist within its Schwarzschild radius (1.0 SR) and appear like a black hole without having all the mass compressed to a singularity at the center; however, this is probably incorrect. Bekenstein's topical overview "A Tale of Two Entropies"[20] describes potentially profound implications of Wheeler's trend, in part by noting a previously unexpected connection between the world of information theory and classical physics. According to the theory employed to model quantum gravity effects, there are different kinds of quantum gravity black holes, namely loop quantum black holes, non-commutative black holes, and asymptotically safe black holes. This fact has been used to study many aspects of nuclear and condensed matter physics by translating problems in those subjects into more mathematically tractable problems in string theory. [3] His calculations showed that the smaller the size of the black hole, the faster the evaporation rate, resulting in a sudden burst of particles as the micro black hole suddenly explodes. What exactly is it that spins? [2][3][4] After an initial flash of gamma rays, a longer-lived "afterglow" is usually emitted at longer wavelengths (X-ray, ultraviolet, optical, infrared, microwave and radio).[5]. Independently of the specific formation channel for the black hole seed, given sufficient mass nearby, it could accrete to become an intermediate-mass black hole and possibly a SMBH if the accretion rate persists. If neighboring geodesics start moving toward each other they eventually collide, at which point their extension is inside the black hole. The birth of the first SMBHs can therefore be a result of standard cosmological structure formation contrary to what had been thought for almost two decades.[57][58]. In this case the spatial extension of fermions limits the minimum mass of a black hole to be on the order of 1016kg, showing that micro black holes may not exist. This means that black holes would not only absorb photons, but they would also have to emit them in the right amount to maintain detailed balance. It was argued in 2001 that, in these circumstances, black hole production could be an important and observable effect at the LHC[4][5][6][7][22] or future higher-energy colliders. [105] On February 28, 2013, astronomers reported on the use of the NuSTAR satellite to accurately measure the spin of a supermassive black hole for the first time, in NGC 1365, reporting that the event horizon was spinning at almost the speed of light.[106][107]. The infall of matter into the new black hole produces an accretion disk and releases a burst of energy, analogous to the collapsar model. [115], Gamma ray bursts can have harmful or destructive effects on life. This connection was first described shortly after the seminal 1948 papers of American applied mathematician Claude E. Shannon introduced today's most widely used measure of information content, now known as Shannon entropy. [126], Earth's atmosphere is very effective at absorbing high energy electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays and gamma rays, so these types of radiation would not reach any dangerous levels at the surface during the burst event itself. In 1989, Paul Davies argued that the transition between the two states occurs when the square of the black hole's mass-to-angular-momentum ratio, in Planck units, equals the golden ratio. The Shadow of the Supermassive Black Hole", "Viewing the Shadow of the Black Hole at the Galactic Center", "Has the Milky Way's Black Hole Come to Light? He concluded that the black hole entropy is directly proportional to the area of the event horizon. When this effect is taken into account, typical gamma-ray bursts are observed to have a true energy release of about 1044J, or about 1/2000 of a Solar mass (M) energy equivalent[86] which is still many times the mass-energy equivalent of the Earth (about 5.51041J). [1][2] Since observed astronomical objects do not possess an appreciable net electric charge, only the Kerr solution has astrophysical relevance. Such Planck-mass black holes may in effect be stable objects if the quantized gaps between their allowed energy levels bar them from emitting Hawking particles or absorbing energy gravitationally like a classical black hole. [14] These are, however, magnified greatly for the purpose of story telling. The broadening was due to the gravitational redshift of the light as it escaped from just 3 to 10 Schwarzschild radii from the black hole. [129][130], The major OrdovicianSilurian extinction events 450 million years ago may have been caused by a GRB. ", "Cosmic energy burst disturbs Earth's atmosphere", "Possible Role of Gamma Ray Bursts on Life Extinction in the Universe", "Terrestrial Ozone Depletion due to a Milky Way Gamma-Ray Burst", "Influence of a galactic gamma ray burst on ocean plankton", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, "Multiradionuclide evidence for the solar origin of the cosmic-ray events of 774/5 and 993/4", "Illustration of a Short Gamma-Ray Burst Caused by a Collapsing Star", "Gamma-ray burst progenitors and the population of rotating Wolf-Rayet stars", "Fermi Observations of High-Energy Gamma-Ray Emission from GRB 080916C", Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, "The Burst Alert Telescope (BAT) on the SWIFT Midex Mission", "Primordial black-hole evaporation and the quarkgluon phase transition", Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, "NASA's Swift Catches Farthest Ever Gamma-Ray Burst", "A Gamma-Ray Burst Bibliography, 19732001", Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society, "The Annihilating Effects of Space Travel", "Report of the 2008 Senior Review of the Astrophysics Division Operating Missions", "Very Large Array Detects Radio Emission From Gamma-Ray Burst", "New Gamma-Ray Burst Smashes Cosmic Distance Record", "Gamma-Ray Flash Came from Star Being Eaten by Massive Black Hole", "Protecting Life in the Milky Way: Metals Keep the GRBs Away", "TNG caught the farthest GRB observed ever", "Transient optical emission from the error box of the gamma-ray burst of 28 February 1997", "Explosions in Space May Have Initiated Ancient Extinction on Earth", Swift Mission Operations Center at Penn State, INTEGRAL: INTErnational Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory, BATSE: Burst and Transient Source Explorer, AGILE: Astro-rivelatore Gamma a Immagini Leggero, The Gamma-ray bursts Coordinates Network (GCN), BOOTES: Burst Observer and Optical Transient Exploring System, GROND: Gamma-Ray Burst Optical Near-infrared Detector, KAIT: The Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope, MASTER: Mobile Astronomical System of the Telescope-Robots, ROTSE: Robotic Optical Transient Search Experiment, Magnetospheric eternally collapsing object, Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae, Safety of high-energy particle collision experiments, Existential risk from artificial intelligence, Self-Indication Assumption Doomsday argument rebuttal, Self-referencing doomsday argument rebuttal, List of dates predicted for apocalyptic events, List of apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gamma-ray_burst&oldid=1119986691, Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from September 2021, Pages using Sister project links with default search, Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 4 November 2022, at 13:41. Examples of such extensions include large extra dimensions, special cases of the RandallSundrum model, and string theory configurations like the GKP solutions. [76][78][79] The low detection rate may be a result of low sensitivity of current detectors to long-duration events, rather than a reflection of their true frequency. Modern interest in the concept stems from particle theories, notably the grand unified and superstring theories, which predict As additional Vela satellites were launched with better instruments, the Los Alamos team continued to find inexplicable gamma-ray bursts in their data. It is possible that such black holes were created in the high This combination of brightness and distance implies an extremely energetic source. "Astronomers See Distant Eruption as Black Hole Destroys Star", "Gravitomagnetism, Jets in Quasars, and the Stanford Gyroscope Experiment", "Spinning Black Hole Swallowing Star Explains Superluminous Event - ESO telescopes help reinterpret brilliant explosion", Neil DeGrasse Tyson: Death by Black Hole (clear explanation of the term), Magnetospheric eternally collapsing object, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spaghettification&oldid=1097434176, Articles with unsourced statements from May 2019, Short description is different from Wikidata, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 10 July 2022, at 18:31. Stephen Hawking described the flight of a fictional astronaut who, passing within a black hole's event horizon, is "stretched like spaghetti" by the gravitational gradient (difference in gravitational force) from head to toe. ISBN-10 : 1409210316 [26]), For decades after the discovery of GRBs, astronomers searched for a counterpart at other wavelengths: i.e., any astronomical object in positional coincidence with a recently observed burst. [15][self-published source?] [102][103] The source was previously an inactive galactic nucleus, and from study of the outburst the galactic nucleus is estimated to be a SMBH with mass of the order of a million solar masses. Rotating black holes are formed in the gravitational collapse of a massive spinning star or from the collapse or collision of a collection of compact objects, stars, or gas with a total non-zero angular momentum. It has, however, been suggested that a small black hole of sufficient mass passing through the Earth would produce a detectable acoustic or seismic signal. So the geodesics are always moving apart, and the number of geodesics which generate the boundary, the area of the horizon, always increases. Hawking's calculation fixed the constant of proportionality at 1/4; the entropy of a black hole is one quarter its horizon area in Planck units. The quasar Ton 618 is an example of an object with an extremely large black hole, estimated at 6.61010 (66 billion)M. The letter 'A' is appended to the name for the first burst identified, 'B' for the second, and so on. The infall of matter into the new black hole produces an accretion disk and releases a burst of energy, analogous to the collapsar model. The holographic principle states that the entropy of ordinary mass (not just black holes) is also proportional to surface area and not volume; that volume itself is illusory and the universe is really a hologram which is isomorphic to the information "inscribed" on the surface of its boundary. Just maybe, a holographic cosmos", "The large $N$ limit of superconformal field theories and supergravity", "Top Cited Articles of All Time (2014 edition)", "Information in the Holographic Universe Theoretical results about black holes suggest that the universe could be like a gigantic hologram", "Central charges in the canonical realization of asymptotic symmetries: an example from three-dimensional gravity", "Information in the Holographic Universe by Jacob D. Bekenstein [July 14,2003]", "Integral challenges physics beyond Einstein", "Frequently Asked Questions for the Holometer at Fermilab", "Single photon could detect quantum-scale black holes". [66][67][68] The mean duration of these events of 0.2 seconds suggests (because of causality) a source of very small physical diameter in stellar terms; less than 0.2 light-seconds (about 60,000km or 37,000 miles four times the Earth's diameter). Micro black holes, also called mini black holes or quantum mechanical black holes, are hypothetical tiny (<1 M) black holes, for which quantum mechanical effects play an important role. In 1995, Susskind, along with collaborators Tom Banks, Willy Fischler, and Stephen Shenker, presented a formulation of the new M-theory using a holographic description in terms of charged point black holes, the D0 branes of type IIA string theory. The radiating matter is orbiting at 30% of the speed of light just outside the innermost stable circular orbit. Moreover, a black hole has no surface to stop a fall. [citation needed], Virtual micro black holes were proposed by Stephen Hawking in 1995[27] and by Fabio Scardigli in 1999 as part of a Grand Unified Theory as a quantum gravity candidate. [26] Fowler then proposed that these supermassive stars would undergo a series of collapse and explosion oscillations, thereby explaining the energy output pattern. A known configuration of classical fields has zero entropy: there is nothing random about electric and magnetic fields, or gravitational waves. [39][40] Swift is equipped with a very sensitive gamma-ray detector as well as on-board X-ray and optical telescopes, which can be rapidly and automatically slewed to observe afterglow emission following a burst. [123] Only a small percentage of these would be beamed towards Earth. They are the most energetic and luminous electromagnetic events since the Big Bang. In the process, a working body falls (black thick line in the figure) into the ergosphere (gray region). [28] Meanwhile, in 1967, Martin Ryle and Malcolm Longair suggested that nearly all sources of extra-galactic radio emission could be explained by a model in which particles are ejected from galaxies at relativistic velocities; meaning they are moving near the speed of light. In particle physics, a magnetic monopole is a hypothetical elementary particle that is an isolated magnet with only one magnetic pole (a north pole without a south pole or vice versa). [1] The concept that black holes may exist that are smaller than stellar mass was introduced in 1971 by Stephen Hawking. [2] To make a black hole, one must concentrate mass or energy sufficiently that the escape velocity from the region in which it is concentrated exceeds the speed of light. "[13], Conjectures for the final fate of the black hole include total evaporation and production of a Planck-mass-sized black hole remnant. ",[19] referring to the holographic principle. On one side are anti-de Sitter spaces (AdS) which are used in theories of quantum gravity, formulated in terms of string theory or M-theory. Some galaxies lack any supermassive black holes in their centers. Summer School of Space Art with Joe Davis", "Testing Loop Quantum Gravity from Observational Consequences of Nonsingular Rotating Black Holes", Magnetospheric eternally collapsing object, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rotating_black_hole&oldid=1118968312, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles needing additional references from March 2021, All articles needing additional references, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 30 October 2022, at 01:06. ISBN-13 : 978-1409210313, Hypothetical black holes of very small size, Black holes in quantum theories of gravity, Safety of particle collisions at the Large Hadron Collider, Safety of high-energy particle collision experiments, "Gravitationally collapsed objects of very low mass", "Physicists Strive to Build A Black Hole", "Satellite could open door on extra dimension", "Fermi Gamma Ray Space Telescope: "Mini" black hole detection", "Are Microscopic Black Holes Buzzing Inside the Earth? For a four-dimensional spherical uncharged black hole, the deformation of the horizon is similar to the type of deformation which describes the emission and absorption of particles on a string-theory world sheet. All this assumes that the theory of general relativity remains valid at these small distances. This would affect photosynthesis, but models show only about a 1% reduction of the total sunlight spectrum, lasting a few years. All other variations in the black hole will either escape to infinity or be swallowed up by the black hole. A model for the nonspherical collapse in general relativity with the emission of matter and gravitational waves has been presented. Since a supermassive black hole will only be visible while it is accreting, a supermassive black hole can be nearly invisible, except in its effects on stellar orbits. These events are at the tail end of the long GRB duration distribution, lasting more than 10,000 seconds. At its lowest point (red dot) the body fires a propellant backwards; however, to a faraway observer both seem to continue to move forward due to frame-dragging (albeit at different speeds). Depending on the mass during its lifetime, these stellar remnants can take one of three forms: The collapse of the stellar core to a white dwarf takes place over tens of thousands of years, while the star blows off its outer envelope to form a planetary nebula. [19] In addition, it is somewhat counterintuitive to note that the average density of a SMBH within its event horizon (defined as the mass of the black hole divided by the volume of space within its Schwarzschild radius) can be less than the density of water. Astronomers are confident that the Milky Way galaxy has a supermassive black hole at its center, 26,000 light-years from the Solar System, in a region called Sagittarius A*[81] because: Infrared observations of bright flare activity near Sagittarius A* show orbital motion of plasma with a period of 4515min at a separation of six to ten times the gravitational radius of the candidate SMBH. [4] Spaghettification of a star was imaged for the first time in 2018 by researchers observing a pair of colliding galaxies approximately 150 million light-years from Earth.[5]. AU. However, in the G0 limit, one must reproduce non-gravitational physics in the flat Euclidean background spacetime. Equations. [1][4][5][6][7] Some galaxies, such as the galaxy 4C +37.11, appear to have two supermassive black holes at their centers, forming a binary system. When a gamma-ray burst is pointed towards Earth, the focusing of its energy along a relatively narrow beam causes the burst to appear much brighter than it would have been were its energy emitted spherically. A rigid body will resist distortion, and internal elastic forces develop as the body distorts to balance the tidal forces, so attaining mechanical equilibrium. This burst provided the first strong clue about the nature of the systems that produce GRBs. For example loop quantum gravity predicts that a Planck star would form. Any energy released by the explosion not radiated away in the burst itself takes the form of matter or energy moving outward at nearly the speed of light. GRBs are named after the date on which they are discovered: the first two digits being the year, followed by the two-digit month and two-digit day and a letter with the order they were detected during that day. Along with that, the right side of the body will be pulled to the left, and the left side of the body will be pulled to the right, horizontally compressing the person. Some postulate they might come from direct collapse of dark matter with self-interaction. The precise implications for this discovery on black hole formation are unknown, but may indicate that black holes formed before bulges.[100]. Well after then, another major breakthrough occurred with the next event registered by BeppoSAX, GRB 970508. This degenerate neutron matter has a density of about 6.651017kg/m3. Additional safety arguments beyond those based on Hawking radiation were given in the paper,[25][26] which showed that in hypothetical scenarios with stable micro black holes massive enough to destroy Earth, such black holes would have been produced by cosmic rays and would have likely already destroyed astronomical objects such as planets, stars, or stellar remnants such as neutron stars and white dwarfs. The infall of this material into a black hole drives a pair of relativistic jets out along the rotational axis, which pummel through the stellar envelope and eventually break through the stellar surface and radiate as gamma rays. A magnetic monopole would have a net north or south "magnetic charge". In 2012, astronomers reported an unusually large mass of approximately 17 billionM for the black hole in the compact, lenticular galaxy NGC 1277, which lies 220 million light-years away in the constellation Perseus. Most of this energy is released in gamma rays, although some GRBs have extremely luminous optical counterparts as well. [4] ], A tidal disruption event of this sort is when a star interacts with a supermassive black hole, shredding the star, and in some cases creating a relativistic jet which produces bright emission of gamma ray radiation. Gravitational collapse is the contraction of an astronomical object due to the influence of its own gravity, which tends to draw matter inward toward the center of gravity. The formation of a rotating black hole by a collapsar is thought to be observed as the emission of gamma ray bursts. ", Review talk given at the International Conference on Theoretical Physics TH2002, Astrophysical implications of hypothetical stable TeV-scale black holes, Mini Black Holes Might Reveal 5th Dimension, Magnetospheric eternally collapsing object, Existential risk from artificial intelligence, Self-Indication Assumption Doomsday argument rebuttal, Self-referencing doomsday argument rebuttal, List of dates predicted for apocalyptic events, List of apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction, Black Holes and Baby Universes and Other Essays, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Micro_black_hole&oldid=1108268110, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles with unsourced statements from January 2017, Articles with unsourced statements from May 2012, Articles with unsourced statements from January 2008, Articles with unsourced statements from May 2020, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, Harrison, B. K.; Thorne, K. S.; Wakano, M.; Wheeler, J. [14], Hawking's calculation suggested that the radiation which black holes emit is not related in any way to the matter that they absorb. Neutron stars are expected to have a skin or "atmosphere" of normal matter on the order of a millimeter thick, underneath which they are composed almost entirely of closely packed neutrons (popularly called "neutronium") with a slight dusting of free electrons and protons mixed in. According to Einstein's theory, for even larger stars, above the LandauOppenheimerVolkoff limit, also known as the TolmanOppenheimerVolkoff limit (roughly double the mass of the Sun) no known form of cold matter can provide the force needed to oppose gravity in a new dynamical equilibrium. [47] The light curves of some events have extremely chaotic and complicated profiles with almost no discernible patterns. This emission is consistent with a circularized orbit of a polarized "hot spot" on an accretion disk in a strong magnetic field. This is the point at which it has been hypothesized that the known laws of gravity cease to be valid. Thus, the most likely outcome would be micro black holes. On March 28, 2011, a supermassive black hole was seen tearing a mid-size star apart. In the gravity field due to a point mass or spherical mass, for a uniform rod oriented in the direction of gravity, the tensile force at the center is found by integration of the tidal force from the center to one of the ends. Shannon's efforts to find a way to quantify the information contained in, for example, a telegraph message, led him unexpectedly to a formula with the same form as Boltzmann's. [116], This article is about the astronomical object. Hawking's result was called the second law of black hole thermodynamics, by analogy with the law of entropy increase, but at first, he did not take the analogy too seriously. According to theories based on quantum mechanics, at a later stage, the collapsing object will reach the maximum possible energy density for a certain volume of space or the Planck density (as there is nothing that can stop it). (1995) were able to demonstrate that the emission from an H2O maser in this galaxy came from a gaseous disk in the nucleus that orbited a concentrated mass of 3.6107M, which was constrained to a radius of 0.13parsecs. [9], Two supermassive black holes have been directly imaged by the Event Horizon Telescope: the black hole in the giant elliptical galaxy Messier 87 and the black hole at the Milky Ways center. In gamma-ray astronomy, gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are immensely energetic explosions that have been observed in distant galaxies. But, to his surprise, a careful analysis convinced him that they do, and in just the right way to come to equilibrium with a gas at a finite temperature. However, the smog could potentially cause a cooling effect on Earth's climate, producing a "cosmic winter" (similar to an impact winter, but without an impact), but only if it occurs simultaneously with a global climate instability.

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